I've decided to have a look into some history for a change. Elizabeth I remains a fascinating topic, and this will cover events that led up to the Spanish Armada of 1588.
Anglo-Spanish
relations under Elizabeth I
England's relationship with Spain was complicated by four
factors:
1) Philip was the leading Catholic monarch in Europe.
Elizabeth could not expect that he would tolerate her Protestantism
indefinitely.
2) Philip was the ruler of the Netherlands. The Netherlands
had recently embraced Protestantism and was seeking independence from its
Catholic master, and members of Elizabeth's privy council wanted to assist them
in this quest. Philip would not tolerate this.
3) The possibility of a Catholic alliance between France and
Spain worried Elizabeth. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559) had already
shown Elizabeth that this was not impossible.
4) The New World had created a cause for competition between
England and Spain.
However, Philip was not openly hostile to England in 1558.
He preferred Elizabeth to Mary Queen of Scots because of Mary's French
connections.
Why did relations
deteriorate?
Philip thought that he could convince Elizabeth to return to
Catholicism. However, Elizabeth took a number of actions that proved she would
not be easily swayed.
The Treaty of Berwick
(1560)
Elizabeth supported to the Protestant Lords in Scotland who
were trying to bring military action against the rule of the Guise family.
The French Wars of
Religion: The Treaty of Hampton Court (1562-64)
Elizabeth
intervened on behalf of the French Huguenots by promising them military aid.
This offended Philip, who saw it as clear proof that she was heretic sponsoring
Protestant rebels.
Elizabeth and the Relationship with the
Netherlands, (1562-72).
Although Philip
had opposed the excommunication of Elizabeth, there was a significant
deterioration in their relationship during this period. Cardinal
Granvelle told Philip that he believed
Elizabeth used English traders to foment Protestant rebellion in the
Netherlands. In 1563 he used the outbreak of plague in London to ban the import
of English cloth. Elizabeth retaliated by prohibiting all imports from the
Netherlands. Although trade was eventually resumed, this did not reconcile the
underlying differences.
In 1566 there
was an outbreak of Calvinist revolts in Dutch towns. Philip despatched the Duke
of Alba to the Netherlands to crush Protestantism there. The presence of such a
large Spanish force across the channel presented a significant threat to
England. The situation worsened when many Protestant refugees flooded into
England, making it look as though she was harbouring rebels. Elizabeth's
relationship with Philip went into sharp decline.
By 1568, the
Duke of Alba was victorious. The Protestant leader William of Orange was
defeated in battle and Elizabeth came under pressure from her Privy Council to
intervene. Since Elizabeth could not openly assist intervention (she preferred
Spanish control in the Netherlands to French control), she opted instead for the
policy of harassment. This
involved:
- Seamen like Francis Drake attacking Spanish shipping in the New World
- In November 1568, a storm drove Spanish ships to take refuge in English ports in Devon and Cornwall. The ships were carrying 400,000 gold florins, which were bound for the Netherlands to pay the Spanish army. Elizabeth seized the gold and in doing so struck a great blow against the Duke of Alba.
Philip was outraged by this seizure of gold. In both Spain
and the Netherlands he ordered the seizure of English ships and property.
Within weeks a full trade embargo existed between the two countries.
Although Philip did not support Elizabeth's excommunication
in 1570, he was increasingly ready to support Catholic plots against Elizabeth
in England. He sent financial aid to English Catholics and also promised 10,000
troops to support the Ridolfi Plot of 1571.
Elizabeth continued her policy of harassment and explored
the possibility of a marriage alliance with the Duke of Anjou. Later, she
negotiated marriage with the Duke of Alencon.
The Treaty of Blois
(1572)
·
England and France established a league to
defend themselves against Spanish aggression.
·
France abandoned the claims of Mary, Queen of
Scots to the throne of England.
In 1572, Elizabeth expelled the Sea Beggars from English
ports. At this point Elizabeth's motivation for her actions are unclear.
Did she want to improve relations?
Yes - Elizabeth
may have believed that the expulsion of the Sea Beggars would be regarded
favourably by Spain.
No - The Sea
Beggars returned to the Netherlands and were instrumental in encouraging
renewed revolt in the Port of Brill. Some historians suggest that this was a
deliberate move to incite further rebellion in the Netherlands.
Although
Anglo-Spanish relations had deteriorated the conflict of 1588 was by no means
inevitable. Elizabeth wanted to preserve the cloth trade and maintain a secure
frontier. None of these objectives would be achieved by open war. Similarly, Philip was involved in a conflict
with the Ottomans and another war would be expensive and too risky.
The deterioration
of relations with Spain, 1573-85.
The conflict over the Netherlands:
It was the precarious position of the Netherlands that was
the catalyst for collision.
There was a brief moment of peace between the countries with
the Treaty
of Bristol in1574:
·
the gold dispute was settled
·
English rebels were banished from the
Netherlands
·
English Protestants in the Netherlands were permitted
to practice their religion
·
Elizabeth closed her harbours to Dutch rebels
and refused them assistance
The Convention of
Nymegen:
·
Elizabeth agreed to withdraw support for raids
on Spanish shipping in the Indies.
However, this did not last long. It was the unstable
condition of the Netherlands that led to the resurgence of hostility between
England and Spain. The Spanish army in the Netherlands mutinied because
they hadn't been paid. This resulted in
them sacking Antwerp (The Spanish Fury) and uniting the 17 provinces of the
Netherlands in rebellion against their overlords.
The Pacification of
Ghent (1577):
·
Spain was forced to accept that all foreign
troops should be expelled from the Netherlands and all their traditional
liberties should be restored (Elizabeth offered a loan of £100,000 to ensure
this).
However, by 1578 Philip had disregarded the Treaty and
appointed Don Juan of Austria as Governor General of the Netherlands.
Therefore, Elizabeth was forced to use a new version of
harassment:
·
she sent a 6,000 mercenary force to the
Netherlands
·
She financed Drake's circumnavigation of the
globe, which included a voyage to the Spanish Indies where he was authorised to
attack Spanish shipping. Elizabeth knighted Drake on his return, effectively giving
her approval to piracy.
After Philip's acquisition of Portugal (1580), Elizabeth
provided Alencon with £70,000 in an attempt to establish independence in the
Netherlands. However, Elizabeth was still not prepared to give whole hearted
support to the United Provinces in their struggle. (Alencon's mission failed
because of the Duke of Parma)
The catholic assassination of William of Orange (1584):
This plunged the Netherlands into crisis and confirmed the
significance of the threat posed to all Protestants from Catholicism. The Privy
Council were convinced that Elizabeth herself was directly threatened and that
the advance of Philip in the Netherlands had to be checked.
The Secret Treaty of
Joinville (Dec 1484) :
The death of Alencon had significant consequences in the
internal affairs of France, as well as leaving a void in the leadership of the
Dutch rebels. The heir to the throne was now the protestant Henry of Navarre.
The Guise faction was alarmed and sought a Catholic league with Spain. Philip
II pledged to assist the Guise party in its plan to disinherit Navarre. This
carried the threat of a full Franco-Spanish alliance that posed the greatest
danger of a Catholic attack on England from the continent. This fear was
enhanced by Philip's seizure of English ships docked in Spanish ports. The
Privy Council became convinced that decisive steps needed to be taken and that
Elizabeth must prevaricate no longer.
The Treaty of Nonsuch
(August 1485):
·
She promised to send 6,400 foot soldiers and
1,000 cavalry under the command of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
·
She received the ports of Flushing and Brill in
return
Leicester accepted the title of Governor-General of the
Estates General which was against Elizabeth's orders but nevertheless gave the
impression that she had accepted sovereignty over their Netherlands, and that
Leicester was acting as her viceroy.
The Catalyst to
War: Mary, Queen of Scots
The Northern Rebellion demonstrated that there were already
Catholics who were sympathetic to her cause and regarded her claim to the
throne as more legitimate than that of Elizabeth's. Elizabeth and her
councillors did not underestimate the threat that came from those Catholics who
gave their loyalty to the Pope first, and whose opposition to Elizabeth was
justified by the papal bull of excommunication (1570). The arrival of seminary
priests from the Netherlands and the Jesuits further strengthened the threat,
as their aim was to rekindle Catholicism in England.
The Throckmorton Plot
(1583-86):
The Catholic Duke of Guise and the Spanish Ambassador
Mendoza conspired to reassert Catholic control of Scotland and use it as a base
for an invasion of England, with the intention of putting Mary on the throne. Throckmorton
was an English Catholic who acted as an intermediary between Mary and Mendoza.
When uncovered, Mendoza was expelled from England and the Privy Council drew up
the Bond of Association.
The Act for the Preservation
of the Queen's safety (1585)
Mary Queen of Scots barred from the
succession if Elizabeth were killed.
The Treaty of Berwick
(1586):
England and Scotland signed a mutual defensive alliance pact
to guarantee aid should an invasion of either homeland take place. James VI of
Scotland was recognised as Elizabeth's heir.
The Babington Plot
(1586-86):
A member of the Catholic gentry, Anthony Babington, was
persuaded to lead an insurrection of English Catholics to coincide with an
invasion led by the Catholic league. The plot had Spanish and Papal support and
involved an assassin who had sworn to kill Elizabeth. Due to Mary's involvement, she was executed
in 1487. Mary had bequeathed her claim to the English throne to Philip II. He
now had the justification he required to launch 'The Enterprise of England'.
